Environmental Health Risk Assessment Samples †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Environmental Health Risk Assessment. Answer: Introduction By the term inner city, we mean the main area of a city or metropolis where the population density is higher in comparison to outer suburbs. Most of the population are found to be living in apartments and multi-floored townhouses (Roen et al., 2015). According to Assal et al., (2014) the environment in inner cities is overcrowded, and the population is found to be exposed to poor living conditions. There is a crucial link between environmental and social determinants of health in urban settings. The primary health hazards are due to polluted environment, exposure to noise, increased chances of infection and extreme temperature. The potential health impacts of these hazards are wide-spread and long-term. Interventions are needed at all levels for improving health equity through policies and actions that address the proximal risk factors. The present report is an environmental health risk assessment that involves the quantification of hazards associated with overcrowding and poor living conditions in inner-city apartments, put forward by the Environmental Health Officer working for the City of Melbourne. The findings of the assessment are hereby presented along with the recommendations for interventions and a suitballe communication plan in oder to alert the health service providers and other service providers about the findings. The report is divided into four sections. The first section is Issue Identification and focuses on the three likely health hazards associated with poor living conditions and overcrowding in inner-city apartments. The second section is Hazard and Exposure Assessment and throws light on the likely health impacts of the identified hazards. Academic literature and statistical resources and cited as appropriate. The mechanisms by which the hazards are known to make an impact on health are analysed and the particular subpopulations who are particularly exposed to these hazards are highlighted. The third section is Risk Characterisation and makes an overall assessment of the level of health risk from the environmental hazards. This considers the severity and likelihood of the health impacts at the population level. The fourth section is Risk Management Plan and outlines suitable recommendations for interventions by the City of Melbourne and other stakeholders. Illustrative examples are provided on how the recoomednations can be implemented. The report has a conclusion that summarises the main findings of the report. Issue identification It has been estimated by World Health Organisation (WHO) that almost half of the population of the world in present times live in urban areas and it is expected that for the first time in history, the urban population of the world would be more in comparison to the rural population by the year 2050 (Li et al., 2016). Public health departments have time and again brought into limelight the health issues pertaining to living in inner cities and have attempted to make the common population aware of these confounding issues. The key health hazards are a result of the changing environment, for which, the population is responsible at large. The environment in inner-cities involves potential health hazards that have an inequitable distribution of vulnerabilities and exposures. The high population density in overcrowded cities struggles to cope up with the health demands put up by the health hazards. The three significant health hazards that have been in focus due to their major relationship with poor living conditions and over crowding in inner-city apartments are a risk of infection, air pollution and exposure to noise (Wolch et al., 2014). Individuals living in inner-cities are highly exposed to risks of different infections, and this health issue has been reported since the 20th century. Risks of infections is a dominant cause of mortality among the urbanised population. Larger cities, such as Melbourne, combine the most common traditional environmental health issues of infections, mainly enteric and respiratory in nature, with unregulated industrialisation. Increased chances of infections is a right forward impact of reshaping of human ecology as a result of living in cities. The epidemiology of infectious diseases is exhibiting marked changes, as indicated by recent population studies. New megacities are becoming the incubators for zoonotic diseases, and these are also spreading among cities in a rapid manner (Tong et al., 2015). The World Health Organisation (WHO) has put air pollution among the top five key risk factors for health hazards in cities. As per the reports of WHO, around 8 million premature deaths have been reported in the year 2012 due to the poor quality of air that individuals breathe in. This marks air pollution as the worlds single biggest environmental health risk. 4.3 million deaths have been attributable to indoor air pollution whereas 3.7 million deaths have been attributable to outdoor air pollution. Increasing ownership of vehicles as a result of urbanisation, use of cars without air filters and catalytic convertors, along with absence of proper controls on factory outlet of smokes contribute extensively to hazardous air pollution levels (who.int, 2016). Exposure to noise, or noise disturbances, is the third most vital health hazards in cities whereby excessive noise is known to harm the balance of human life. The sources of outdoor noise in cities is mostly machines and motor vehicles, transportation systems. Outdoor noise is considered by the term environmental noise. Living in residential buildings within a city makes an individual exposed to higher levels of noise pollution. It is to be noted that individuals living in cities often overlook noise pollution as a major source of environmental stress leading to health issues (Murphy King, 2014). Hazard and exposure assessment Risk of infection Overcrowded housing in cities with high-density populations are a breeding ground for popular infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, lower respiratory infections, diarrhoeal diseases and chronic obstructive lung disease. The top three causes of death among the city population are HIV/AIDS, lower respiratory diseases and diarrhoeal diseases. The rise of cities have posed risk factors such as poor housing that often leads to high rates of proliferation of rodent and insect vector diseases and geohelminthiases. This is then associated with inadequate waste and sanitisation management and in sufficient water supply. All of these factors in combination with each other contribute to a good setting where insects and rodents can grow which are known to carry soil-transmitted helminth infections and pathogens (Neiderud, 2015). Respiratory tract infections are commonly caused due to lack of proper ventilation and fuel systems. Contiminated water is responibe for spreading diseases, in a sim ilar manner in which poor food preparation and storage creates health hazards. In addition, the high density of inhabitants is the reason for close contact between people in cities. Such close contact between individuals is marked as thee hot spot for fast spread of infectious diseases that are merging in nature, such as avian flu and sever acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) (Wood et al., 2017). As highlighted by Kraemer et al., (2016) residents who are subjected to lack of proper sanitisation and safe water for drinking purposes are more susceptible to helminth infections. Such forms of infections have now become a vital cause for intellectual and physical growth retardation across the globe, making a noteworthy impact on public health. Vector proliferation as a result of overcrowding leads to disease such as Chagas disease. A significant mode of transmission is vectorial infected bites of bugs. The health burden of such infections is growing every year, with little positive outcomes achieved. Air pollution The potential for air pollution to lead to adverse health impacts have been established since the mid-twentieth century. Air pollution, even at lower levels, has been related to high mortality and morbidity. Air pollution is caused by the mixture of man-made and natural substances in the air. Air pollution can be classified into two categories; indoor air pollution and outdoor air pollution. Outdoor air pollution considers materials such as fine particles coming from fossil fuels like petroleum and coal, noxious gases such as carbon monoxide, chemical vapours and sulphur dioxide, ground-level ozone and tobacco smoke. Indoor air pollution considers materials such as household products having different chemicals, gases, indoor allergens and pollens (Lave Seskin, 2013). A wide range of negative health impacts is associated with air pollution. Among these are cardiovascular diseases, respiratory disease such as asthma, preterm birth, stroke, lung cancer and in some cases even death. As per the reports of WHO, around 7 million people in the year 2012 died as a result of exposure to air pollution. This accounts for one in eight of total global deaths (who.int, 2014). It has been concluded that women and children are more prone to suffering adverse health impacts due to air pollutions. This section of the population has been found to be paying a heavy price for air pollution as they spend more time at home where they are constantly being exposed to soot and smoke. Older adults develop health complication due to air pollution as a result of poor immune system. WHO has estimated that indoor air pollution has contributed to 4.3 million deaths in the year 2012. Many people are usually exposed to outdoor and indoor air pollution at a similar level. This section of the population is also highly prone to diseases from air pollution. Recent findings have shown that minute particles in the air have more hazardous ingredients in low-income and nonwhite communities in comparison to affluent white communities (health.nsw.gov.au, 2017). Exposure to noise The high intensity of noise is a majorly underestimated threat that leads to a number of long-term as well as short-term health issues, such as cardiovascular diseases, sleep disturbances, hearing impairment and reduced cognitive ability. As pointed out by Geravandi et al., (2015) noise acts as a major stressor for influencing health through immune, cardiovascular and endocrine systems. Noise contributes to chronic high levels of stress hormones like noradrenaline, adrenaline and cortisol, leading to heart failure, stroke and hypertension. Arousal as a result of nighttime noise exposure has been found to increase saliva and blood concentrations of the mentioned hormones even when the individual is sleeping. According to Hammer et al., (2014) noise has been long associated with impairment in childhood development. Constant exposure to noise leads to a negative impact of academic achievements. Impaired motivation and well-being is also a result of exposure to noise. Other health impacts of noise exposure are increased rate of accidents and increased drug use. It has also been found recently that noise pollution is more important as a cause of death than heart diseases. The biological impacts are imperceptible in nature. Research has indicated that some groups among the population are more vulnerable to noise. Children are more exposed to noise at might time. Elderly people and chronically ill individuals show increased sensitivity to noise disturbances. In addition, shift workers also are at high risk as their sleep structure often is stressful. Risk characterisation As per the reports of WHO, the world is facing a rapid urbanisation and significant changes are being brought about in the manner in which the common population is living. These are regarding health, social, behaviour, lifestyles and living standard. Living in inner cities is known for offering a wide range of opportunities for the individuals, such as better access to healthcare; however, the environment in inner-cities pose potential threats to health conditions and are continually introducing new forms of hazards. Health challenges that are evident in inner-cities mostly relate to air pollution, risk of infection and exposure to noise. However, other hazards ar caused due to water contamination, violence and injury. City living and the rising pressure to maintain a certain living standard, together with accessibility to transportation and unhealthy food choices are continuously making a direct impact on health conditions of children and adults alike (Hague, 2015). As opined by Bar ton et al., (2015) living in inner-cities is rightfully the keystone of modern human ecology. Rapid expansion in cities across the world, including Australia, have been the engine of economic and social prosperity. However, growing parallel to the advancements is the health issues arising within the city population. Urban population are now marked as incubators as well as gateways for infectious diseases. Unplanned city environment have led to occurrence of health issues that have moved beyond the set of conventional diseases such as respiratory infections and injuries. The most striking feature is the adaptation of different vector-borne diseases and growing occurrence of physiochemical hazards. These include major exposure to traffic hazards, air pollution and lead pollution. Environmental health hazards are omnipresent, nevertheless, individuals tend to show great variation in their susceptibility to adverse health impacts after being exposed to the toxic environment. Personal features such as gender, age, nutritional status, genetic composition, weight, pre-existing disease status, physiological status, lifestyle and behaviour factors and past exposure all determine the extent to which the individuals would be effected by the environmental health hazards. The manner in which the mentioned characteristics might decrease or increase susceptibility to health hazards is obvious in some cases while in others it is less so (Cyril et al., 2013). Risk management plan Sustainable urbanisation and health complications go hand in hand and living in inner-cities put individuals in the danger zone for developing a wide range of short-term and long-term complications. Reducing the key risk factors would be the ideal stepto reduce the impact of environmental hazards on health among the population at large. As outlined by Capon (2017) the civil society, central government, academia and other concerned groups must come forward and join hands to make the cities a better place to live in terms of health status. The government is to strengthen the resilience of the city and reduce risks and vulnerabilities for health disasters. From the existing literature on risk management plans of environmental health hazards, it has been proposed that institutional capacity of local governments is pivotal for environmental management. It is the primary responsibility of the local government to address the multi-faceted health hazards posing a severe threat for human health. Against the backdrop of the preceding conclusions, the following are the points of recommendations and interventions that when applied would ideally reduce, if not eliminate, the potential health hazards due to urbanisation- Environmental regulations have a major role in environmental policies and strengthening the course of implementation of environmental regulations would be the best approach towards risk management for environmental health hazards. The government must develop the environmental planning framework in alignment with specific objectives and deadlines within the domain of sustainable development strategies. Novice action plans are required for promotion of environmental technology after carrying out a proper cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis. Monitoring action plans on a regular basis would be fundamental for reaching success. Comprehensive risk assessments are crucial in this regard that would consequently highlight the main health concerns of present times. The local government needs to set priorities for the efforts to be given in different spheres of environment management, that is social, technological, economic and social. The government needs to strengthen and promote systems for planning reinforcement of community action in processes eliminating health hazards. It is important that a review is carried out of the functions of the local government in relation to the work they are doing so that there is an active promotion of sustainable management strategies. Environmental training programs must be developed for the municipalities at all spheres of public, local and entrepreneurial actions. This would ensure that all major health hazards are handled in a proper manner. To strengthen the institutional capacities of the municipalities, it is absolutely essential to give focus on the financial, technological and human resources (Kearns Neuwelt, 2016) It is recommended that resources are allocated from bilateral and multilateral cooperation and programs making the environment management systems more robust. Elements of environment sustainability are to be included in the programs. More projects should come up that have the focus on decentralisation and government reforms regarding environment management (Satterthwaite Bartlett 2016). It is necessary to include the common population in decision making processes on how to better avoid the health complications arising due to living in cities. This implies that the policy reforms taken by the government must rest upon the findings of population data and must consider the viewpoints of the local population. Establishment of programs with the aim of promoting network operations on particular health issues would surely facilitate the participation of the citizens. Holding local workshops on environmental management would be beneficial for educating the public about how to reduce the health burden due to environmental hazards. Preparing documents holding all the valuable information would be a good approach to disseminating information among the population. Proper channelling of information is crucial when the impact needs to be wide spread, and therefore proper dissemination of study findings needs to be throughout the hemisphere (Tam, 2016). Conclusion The high-density living environment in inner-cities implies that interventions at a large scale are required for assisting people on how to tackle the growing negative impacts of the health hazards. The existing infrastructure if to be upgraded in order to meet the health demands of the population. Interventions, when implied at higher policy levels, have the potential to create an enhanced equitable and sustainable living condition for the population. These interventions are to include policies taking health aspects into consideration in all relevant sectors. From the global equity standpoint, bringing improvement in the living environment in the City of Melbourne would be advantageous. There is an urgent need of the government to allocate sufficient technical and financial resources so that these interventions can be implemented when and where required. The city of Melbourne needs to promote urban planning for healthy behaviours of individuals and safety. Urban living conditions ar e to be improved at the earliest. It would be an inevitable approach to involve the local communities in all the major decision making in terms of public health. Ensuring that cities are age-friendly and accessible would contribute to the betterment of the condition. Collaboration and coordination among the different public health organisation are crucial in order to make these interventions successful. Dissemination of study findings highlighting population data among the organisations would be beneficial for outlining the interventions as per the need of the community. It is to be hoped that with the strong evidence-based interventions in place, the population living in inner-cities would be better able to prevent potential health hazards bought about by air pollution, noise exposure and infection risks. References Assal, A., Medavarapu, R., Friedman, E. W., Yu, Y., Verma, A., Derman, O. (2014). Outcomes and Treatment Patterns of Patients with CML in an Inner-City, Underserved, Multi-Ethnic Patient Cohort Reveals Good Overall Survival with Both First and Second Generation TKIs As Initial Therapy.Blood,124(21), 5522-5522. Barton, H., Thompson, S., Burgess, S., Grant, M. (Eds.). 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